The art of the body adornment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The art of the body adornment - Essay Example It ias also found in areas such as Egypt, Uganda and other Middle Eastern and African countries. The plant is used for body art because it contains a property called tannins which allows the plant to exhibit color when ground up finely and mixed with hot water. One of the practical uses of henna is as a cooling agent. One can rub the mix on hands or feet in order to cool down in hot, Middle Eastern and African countries with extremely hot, dry climates. Henna is also commonly used as a form of hair dye. When it is used however for the purposes of body art, it is mixed with oils and sugars. Henna can be known as some of the following names, â€Å"henne, Al-Khanna, Jamaica Mignonette, Egyptian Privet and Smooth Lawsonia, the art of its application is referred to as henna (Arabic) or mehndi (Indian)† (Islamic World.net, 2006). Historically speaking, henna has been used for as much as 5,000 years for both its healing properties and for cosmetic purposes. Today henna is used in place of tattoos from time to time as it is not permanent. Henna designs can last on the skin for several weeks as opposed to the permanence of getting a tattoo. Culturally however, Hanna has significance in the Muslim religion as well as other religions. Many historians believe that henna originated in India with the Hindu culture but other historians have reason to believe that it originated in Egypt around the twelfth century. It is also possible that henna was used even earlier by certain African countries as well as countries in the Middle Eat. Many archeologists have found henna markings on the fingers and toes of mummified pharos. Hindu body decoration has been used within the Islamic faith but also within Jewish, Hindu, Christian and even pagan religions. Although henna has been used for religious purposes in many cases, it is known to have been used by working

Working in groups Essay Example for Free

Working in groups Essay 1) Explain the difference types of groups that suit in the workplace a) FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS. Formal groups can be addressed to the staff as a whole, to selected groups of employees or to an individual in the company; such examples can be job appraisal procedures, reports, consultative document, etc. Informal groups in this way means talking but a two-way communication process in all its forms. These groups serve a counter organizational function, attempting to offset in a business. b) SHORT TERM AND LONG TERM. Short term is when an employee is working for a short period of time where as long term is when an employee is work more then that. Being in a group for a shirt time may not give the group all its best, but this can only change by stay for a long period of time. e) QUALITY CIRCLES Discussion groups that meet regularly to identify problems consider alternative solutions and recommend them to management. This forms an important part of a companys programme of continuous improvement. Quality circles may be summarised as following: * They are small groups of workers who meet voluntarily and appoint their own group leader. * They meet on a regular basis, often after work * They are usually from the same work area * Their purpose is to identify, investigate, analyse and solve- related problems. * They present their solutions the management. 2) Why is it of important to mangers individuals to encourage working in groups or teams? It is important for to mangers individuals to work in groups or teams because this can: * Increase listening skills * Shared work load * Work is completed quick * Increase motivation * Shared ideas * Shared responsibility * Developing team confidence * Problem solving * Specific skills 3) Explain fully Belbins team theory. Belbin team roles describe a pattern of behaviour that characterises one persons behaviour in relationship to another in facilitating the progress of a team. The value of Belbin team-role theory lies in enabling an individual or team to benefit from self-knowledge and adjust according to the demands being made by the external situation. Identifying a persons team Role helps: * Improve self awareness and personal effectiveness. * Foster mutual trust and understanding between work colleagues. * Team selection and team building. * Match people to jobs more effectively. Managers must understand that people bring more than their skills and experience to a team, they bring their personalities as well. Utilizing peoples behavioural strengths to create a balanced team adds greatly to both group and personal performance. It shows that although each team member in an example team has a functional role, they also have team roles. These are critical to the teams success. Belbin explains that teams with fewer members may need people to perform dual roles. He shows how behavioural skills can be assessed and how, with care, teams can be constructed that take account of hierarchies as well as personal interaction. 4) Why is it useful ensuring the success of working groups? Work can be made more efficient. Mistakes are likely to be made which also means more ideas are created. A feeling of belonging can be created which could also lead them to be motivated and this creates a better atmosphere. Extra work can be don which can have a knock on effect on any other groups if any. This may lead to increase of production and therefore increase of profit. 5) How do organizations use groups to achieve? a) Targets Groups are there two create ideas, plans and strategies. They can be part of these in order to achieve the target they are set. Each member of the group can be allocated a particular task, so the target is easier to achieve, this can help moral and motivation. This will then result in increased efficiency of completing the task b) Share Skills The work will be shared which makes it quicker to complete. This will motivate the employees to work quicker and faster and share all ideas amongst the group. Along with this is essential that work is shared with equal responsibility. Team confidence will build and problems which occur amongst the group can also be solved. Some people may have specific skills that others may not have; this can lead to good ideas, which can result of a good quality of work performance c) Ideas Goals Ideas are taken 4rm all individuals in the group and then summarised and put together to make a big discussion or point. Every idea brought up can be widened out or also described as a schema. Employees will be motivated and the business will be come more successful. This will lead the business to become more higher ranked. The business will be getting the best of its ability of the groups ideas, which will associate it to become more successful.

My Journal - Chronicling Daily Life Experiences :: essays papers

My Journal - Chronicling Daily Life Experiences It is the start of a new year and I thought I would start a journal chronicling my daily experiences. Tonight we decided to go to the local F.O.P. lodge to a New Years Eve party. We had a pretty good time but what happened later that evening is something that I hope I don’t forget for a long time to come. Still fresh in my mind was the conversation Angela and I had on Christmas night. She was hinting that she wasn’t sure if she wanted to be in a serious relationship this soon after the breakup of her previous one. If that wasn’t hard enough on Christmas she also was to ill to attend my brothers wedding with me in Madison Indiana . To add to all the confusion in my head, on my way home I stopped and got her a rose and a â€Å"happy New Years† balloon. She seemed quite touched by the gesture but also visibly troubled by it. I asked her if she was ready to have a good time tonight and she said â€Å"I was but now I don’t know.† Now what in the world does that mean! I tried applying all sorts of significant meanings to that statement but in the end I decided to just let it go and let events unfold as they would. Fast forward to 2 minutes before midnight. Angela is an absolute goddess, she is very beautiful and one of the nicest, sweetest woman I have ever met, but she is not one given to affection, especially public affection. Well at 2 minutes till she laid a kiss on me that lasted well after midnight. She absolutely blew me away!! The rest of the night was nice, we went to a couple more clubs but that moment is burned into my memory. Everything else paled in comparison. I don’t know if it is possible but I think I kissed her with my heart as well as my lips. I have heard of your â€Å"minds eye†, but tonight I found my â€Å"hearts mouth†................. January 2, 1997 I slept very happily all morning. I guess we were up a little later than I thought. I think my mind is still reeling from last night. I don’t know what I’m going to do with my self since Monday Night football is off, and Buffalo is out of the playoffs.

New vs Traditional Teaching Methods :: Education

Becoming a rational citizen is a process that involves a series of lessons which are created to guide every person to create strong foundations for self-judgment and reasoning. Therefore, it is very important to find the right way to send this essential information to the students in order to promote creativity and efficiency for the new generations which are considered the drive to innovation, social and economic growth (V. S.Damodharan & V. Rengarajan 07).In this case, the measure of efficiency in teaching besides the material presented, narrows down to the process used in the teaching system. Frankly speaking, if we consider the available methods for teaching today, the debate will definitely occur between the old schooling system versus the new schooling system. Being told what to do to get an A isn’t just an experience that my friends and I have had in our years in elementary school but it’s also the main characteristic of the so-called old schooling system. This teaching method emphasizes the theoretical part of learning and it is mostly considered as â€Å"copy-paste† learning. This terminology means that the material explained in class is the teacher’s notes or a book (Damodharan & Rengarajan 04), from the students it is expected to know that information word by word if they want to have a good grade. Since the lessons are teacher oriented mostly, the students are the passive party in the classroom and that leads to less interaction between students in class and no critical thinking for issues being presented. Consequently this lack of discussion in class has a negative effect only on the student because it reduces the chances for feedback or context clarification while lecturing. Last but not least, teaching theory without putting it on life situations may cause students to lose interest in their studies since the system considers him/her just as a number in the class and not a valuable person who can contribute with valuable ideas for the community. Working in groups and having chances to discuss with each other about the lesson is the main characteristic of new schooling system. This teaching method emphasizes the importance of collaborating with each other and it helps students get more involved in cooperative learning.

First Year Psychology Students’ Memory for The News as a Function of Media of Presentation

7O psychology students were presented with a selection of four news stories in three different media; print form, audio form and audio visual form. Participants were tested immediately after exposure to the news to measure retention of story details, via a questionnaire. Subsequent results showed significant differences in information recall between the medium of presentation. Recall of detail was greatest from print, and worst from audio mode. It was made clear that when in print form, information is better absorbed, processed and retained than when in audio-visual mode and audio form. INTRODUCTION As the world's technology grows, and the public's demand for information is ever increasing, the news is presented in increasingly varied media. The news is a key factor in modern day society, with the vast majority of the U.K population being exposed to it at least once every day. Despite the various forms in which news can be accessed, for example radio, print and even music, it can be gathered from public opinion surveys that the vast majority of individuals endorse television as their most important source of news information. Subjective views of audiences indicate that television is an important news source, from which they learn a lot. Yet, research in the past has shown that on the whole, individuals frequently fail to remember very much from television broadcasts. One survey of people living in the San Francisco area, where respondents were telephoned shortly after the evening's main broadcast and asked, â€Å"What do you recall from tonight's broadcast?†, showed 51% could not recall any stories. On average subjects remembered just 6% of bulletin's stories.(Stern 1971) These losses of information recalled can be due to various factors concerning the viewer's motivation, attention, interest in the story and relationship with the story (Gantz 1979, Neuman 1976). For example, British research indicated that gender differences in the recall of TV news is linked to content factors. Interestingly, males recalled information from news narratives about violent incidents accompanied by violent images better than females did. Yet when these same stories were presented in sound only and print form, these gender differences disappeared(Gunter,Furnham and Gietson 1984). Also, research has questioned a variety of news presentation factors as having significant effects on learning(Berry, Gunter and Clifford 1981). It must therefore be questioned whether television is in fact the most memorable form of presentation of information, when compared with audio-only or print form. Printed media convey greater quantities of information, and also allow readers to process the news at their own pace, whereas in both visual and audio-visual modes, the pace of information presentation is set by the producer. It is also argued that people are able to process information more deeply when reading or listening to the source. This is due to the fact that when watching the news item, the viewer is given all the information at once; visual and audio. This can not only be somewhat confusing(especially if the visual information does not correlate to the audio or narrative, often due to quick cutting of visual scenes), but also means the individual does not need to pay attention as much, as no extra thinking must be done. When reading and to some extent listening to an article, the individual must think of the visual ingredient themselves, as this is not given. This additional processing of the material can result in better retention. This has been supported by various researchers(Greenfield 1982, Meringoff 1980). It should be noted that this theory is argued in research, it has been found that recollection of the same story in print and audio-visual modes is better from print(Beighley 1952; Browne 1978). On the other hand, a study using television, radio and print to present information, it was reported that retention of abstract information is far superior when from television, in turn with better memory performance from radio than print(Williams,Paul and Ogilvie 1957). Yet more recent research by Wilson (1974), which involved all three media, found that retention was better from print than audio and audio visual. It is possible that these differences in findings is because Williams tested recognition, whereas Wilson tested free re-call(Gunter,Furnham and Gietson 1984). This therefore could help argue that printed presentation of information produces better free recall performance as reading requires more cognitive effort and requires deeper information processing than television. Millions of pounds are spent on advertising and sponsorship on television, as it is presumed that information that people see on TV will be remembered and hence may lead to buying a certain product. This, therefore is an important and interesting area of research, not only due to the controversy of previous results, but due to the present day necessity for effective advertising and could also lead to future improvements in education and teaching methods. In this experiment, it is Hypothesised that- scores regarding information retention would be higher from groups who receive written material than audio, which would be higher than audio-visual material. In order to carry out this study, a similar study's framework was used as a template for the design. In this case, the study- â€Å"Memory for the news as a function of the channel of communication† (Gunter, Furnham and Gietson 1984) was replicated. METHOD Design and Materials- Random assignation of participants (a control) produced three groups (see participants subsection later) with no limitation on sex ratio in each group. These three groups were the independent variable. The groups were presented with varying media all of which gave the same narrative script (a constant throughout each item), in different forms. Group A(n=25) were presented with news in audio form. Group B(n=22) received the information in print form and Group C(n=23) received the news in audio-visual form. The news items were originally recorded from TV news bulletins transmitted by an experimental TV service, and had not been aired on mainstream networks throughout the U.K. The bulletins were originally broadcast separately over 18 years ago, therefore further reducing the likelihood of a participant having previously seen said items. Participants in were confronted with four separate news stories, which were presented in the same order for each media. In its audio/audio-visual state, each of the four stories lasted approximately one minute, with a total time of 4 minutes, 33seconds from beginning of story 1 to the end of story 4. Two items were scenes of street fighting between protesters/demonstrators and police in El Salvador and South Korea. The two other news items depicted non-violent events – Japan lifting trade restrictions and A Greek Prime Minister's visit to Yugoslavia. Each story had a common narrative voiced over by an unseen narrator, and it was this common narrative which was transcribed in the print form given to Group B. Footage presented to Group C depicted the following scenes- the El Salvador footage showed gun-fighting between individuals in the streets, with commentary from the narrator. Footage from South Korea showed rioters throwing stones at police and rioters reprimanded being clubbed and beaten by officers. The story told gave reasons for these disturbances, which were varying social groups' dissatisfaction with each Government. Japan's reduction on tariffs on certain goods due to disapproval from the U.S.A and the E.E.C was accompanied by footage of delegates at a summit meeting in Versailles concerning various matters including those mentioned previously. The last story concerning the Greek Prime Minister's visit to Yugoslavia depicted images of the visit and documented reasons for the visit. Group C were presented the stories via a colour screen with sound capability. Group A were presented with only the sound stream from the audio-visual medium. Group B were given transcripts of the narrative from the broadcasts. A questionnaire was then given to the groups, which contained twenty questions, five from each story, which questioned the groups about certain facts from the news items, hence testing the content retention of each group. The questions tested remembrance of where and why certain events occurred. The participants then were awarded two points for each correct answer, one point for a partially correct answer and zero for an incorrect answer, giving a maximum score of forty points. Participants- A total of 70 subjects were used in the experiment, all of whom were University of Bath first year psychology students, with ages ranging from 18 to 40. Group A,B and C each had three males in them, and subsequently contained 22, 19 and 20 females respectively. Procedure- Once seated, participants were given a letter which referred to their group- A,B or C. Group B were then removed from the room, and given scripts which they had four minutes to read. They remained in the building's foyer until time was up. Groups A and C were presented with a video with sound on a projected colour screen in the main room. Group A (audio only) were then instructed to cover their eyes as to only listen to the audio from the video, whilst Group C were allowed to watch the video and listen. The exposure times for each group were equated across each media. Once all groups were re-assembled, they were handed with a questionnaire which they had twenty minutes to complete. Subjects then were told the correct answers and marked their own tests. They then handed in the scripts with their group letter and total score on, from which the results were calculated. RESULTS Table 1 (shown below) shows the processed data gained from the experiment. The table presents the means from each group's results on the questionnaire, and the standard deviation of each group. Table 1 Group Number of subjects Mean Score Standard Deviation A- audio 25 7.9 4.6 B- print 22 12.0 5.1 C- audio-visual 23 8.9 4.9 The mean scores of each group are a point of interest in this study as they illustrate the extent to which each medium was recollected, as an average for each group. Group B gained the highest mean score on the questionnaire with an average of 12. Group C gained the next highest average, with a mean score of 8.9, and Group A had the lowest score with 7.9. This indicates that those who received information via print recalled the greatest level of detail, as they scored highest (on average) in the questionnaire. The comparison of mean scores also indicates the superiority of audio-visual medium over audio in terms of detail recollection. It was also necessary to include standard deviation in the data as this shows the dispersion of individual results around the mean for each group. As can be seen from Table 1, the standard deviation for each group was relatively similar; 4.6, 5.1 and 4.9 respectively for groups A, B and C. The standard deviation scores were also relatively low in each group, with group B having the most dispersed results around the mean with the highest standard deviation (5.1). Group A had the lowest standard deviation with 4.6, with group C in between with 4.9. The standard deviation indicates that scores were more agglomerated in group A than groups C and B. As the dispersal around the mean for each group were rather similar, it is indicated that the memory performance of participants in all three groups varied to a certain extent, even though averages were different. DISCUSSION The extent to which the news was recalled by participants was highly dependant upon the mode of presentation. As hypothesised, the results show that the level of detail recalled was greatest following pint presentation of the news. This was the expected outcome, and has been confirmed in previous research, for example Beighley(1952) and Browne(1976), who both found that print in the most memorable medium of presentation. There are a number of theories as to why print is the superior format for news recollection, firstly it is argued that in print form, there is a greater quantity of information offered to the reader. Although the print format was purely a transcript of the narrative of the audio/audio-visual media, the amount of information that can be absorbed and processed by the reader is greater. This can be due to the fact that when in print format, information can be processed at a self-paced speed( Gunter, Furnham and Gietson 1984), whereas in audio and audio visual formats, i nformation is presented at the set pace decided upon by the producer. This leads to a greater absorption of information from print format and hence a greater level of detail recall (as shown in the results of this report; the mean score for subjects given the print format was 12, compared to 7.9 and 8.9 for audio and audio-visual formats respectively),indeed imagery is known to act as a strong mnemonic device(Paivio and Csapo, 1973; Kosslyn and Pomerantz 1977). Printed news also necessitates the reader to conjure up his/her own images whilst reading the script, in order to get a mental picture of the scenes documented. It is this process which also may lead to greater remembrance of detail, as the reader must process the information further than participants who received the audio-visual format( Greenfield 1982 and Meringoff 1980). To some extent, this is prevalent with audio only subjects, as images are not given, so must be imagined. The experiment showed that, contrary to the hypothesis, Group C(audio-visual) scored a higher average than Group A(audio),as can be seen from the results; Group C's average on the questionnaire was 8.9 whilst Group A's average was 7.9. This determination was also made by Williams, Paul and Ogilvie (1957) in a similar study. The findings in their study showed that audio-visual media led to greater information retention than audio only. This result was unexpected, yet there are a number of reasons as to why news presented in audio-visual format was better recalled than in audio. Firstly, the structure of the audio feed was not purposefully made for audio presentation – subjects in Group A(audio) simply covered their eyes and listened to the video's audio stream. Therefore it could be argued that if the audio format was structured for audio presentation, then absorption of information would be greater, as the audio-visual format would rely somewhat on its visual imagery to present its information, therefore Group A(audio) would miss out on this extra source. Another bias in performance could be due to Group A simply having to cover their eyes so as to prevent them from watching the video. This could prove to be distracting, as the subject would to some degree focus on not watching the video footage and therefore lose slight interest in listening to the information. It could also be argued that the act of shielding the information source from oneself has subconscious implications, in that the listener subconsciously feels removed and distanced from news source due to covering his/her eyes. This would limit the amount of information processed and therefore retained. Listeners may also get bored of the blank visual stimuli, therefore making it harder to focus and retain information. There is also the possibility that those who watched the news scored more highly on average than those who listened to the news due to the violent images displayed. It is said that many individuals(especially male) recall images in the video which aid them in retaining information(Gunter, Furnham and Gietson). This is especially prevalent when concerning images of a violent nature- for example scenes from El Salvador of gun fighting. Emotionally charged images, such as war and fighting are proven to be better recalled than neutral images(i.e those with no emotional connotations)(Cohen, Wigand and Harrison, 1976). Therefore video footage may in fact aid the retention of detail. A theory put forward by A. Paivio is that of Dual Coding Theory(Paivio and Csapio 1973), which helps to explain why the hypothesis in this report was partially disproved(in that audio-visual ave rage was higher than audio). Dual Coding theory suggest two cognitive sub-systems, one which deals imagery and the other specializes in language. In this case, Dual Coding theory would assume that due to two sources of information(audio and visual) a were presented to group C, the group members had more information to gather, and furthermore, each source re-enforces the other. This means that the visual imagery would be re-enforced by the audio source, but would itself re-enforce the audio, therefore creating a circumstance in which information is easily absorbed and processed and consequently retained. The investigation could have been hindered and distorted by certain factors encountered. Firstly, Group B were kept in a seating area in a building's foyer whilst reading the transcript. This could have proved to be distracting due to events outside of the building visible through the windows and the coming and going of unrelated individuals through the foyer. Perhaps a closed room would have been more suitable to use for the reading group. The audio feed was not perfect either, as subjects had to sit with other group members and cover their eyes whilst listening to the video, this could result in distancing from the source and loss of focus hence distorting the results. The questionnaires were also marked by the subjects themselves, once told the correct answers. Therefore there was the possibility for cheating, and so the results themselves may be incorrect. This could be improved by using external markers to score the questionnaires, as they have no bias towards the result. Future research could focus on whether Dual Coding theory is a valid argument, and the extent to which it operates.

Polyprotic Acid Example Chemistry Problem

Polyprotic Acid Example Chemistry Problem A polyprotic acid is an acid that can donate more than one hydrogen atom (proton) in an aqueous solution. To find the pH of this type of acid, its necessary to know the dissociation constants for each hydrogen atom. This is an example of how to work a polyprotic acid chemistry problem. Polyprotic Acid Chemistry Problem Determine the pH of a 0.10 M solution of H2SO4. Given: Ka2 1.3 x 10-2 Solution H2SO4 has two H (protons), so it is a diprotic acid that undergoes two sequential ionizations in water: First ionization: H2SO4(aq) → H(aq) HSO4-(aq) Second ionization: HSO4-(aq) ⇔ H(aq) SO42-(aq) Note that sulfuric acid is a strong acid, so its first dissociation approaches 100%. This is why the reaction is written using → rather than ⇔. The HSO4-(aq) in the second ionization is a weak acid, so the H is in equilibrium with its conjugate base. Ka2 [H][SO42-]/[HSO4-] Ka2 1.3 x 10-2 Ka2 (0.10 x)(x)/(0.10 - x) Since Ka2 is relatively large, its necessary to use the quadratic formula to solve for x: x2 0.11x - 0.0013 0 x 1.1 x 10-2 M The sum of the first and second ionizations gives the total [H] at equilibrium. 0.10 0.011 0.11 M pH -log[H] 0.96 Learn More Introduction to Polyprotic Acids Strength of Acids and Bases Concentration of Chemical Species First Ionization H2SO4(aq) H+(aq) HSO4-(aq) Initial 0.10 M 0.00 M 0.00 M Change -0.10 M +0.10 M +0.10 M Final 0.00 M 0.10 M 0.10 M Second Ionization HSO42-(aq) H+(aq) SO42-(aq) Initial 0.10 M 0.10 M 0.00 M Change -x M +x M +x M At Equilibrium (0.10 - x) M (0.10 + x) M x M

Frederick Douglas Life essays

Frederick Douglas' Life essays Any anti slavery book published in 1845 was considered radical and daring, but for a black man and a fugitive slave, at that, to have done it was near suicide. Luckily, Frederick Douglass, the author of The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, was able to flee America by way of Great Britain after the book was released so that the United States could have time to embrace it. It was a story all too common in the United States at the time, but nearly unknown except by those to whom were involved, and even then, only the slaves knew the full story. Frederick Douglass knew his escape would have been in vain if he could not make others aware of the atrocities taking place in the south at the time. So, with utter disregard for the consequences of his actions, he revealed to the world the horror that was slavery. Douglass spends much of the novel addressing the most obvious aspect of slavery, which is the cruelty. The novel opens with Douglass talking of being sold from his mother at a young age and then several years later, after hearing of her death, being utterly unmoved as though it had been a total stranger. Although done subtlety, this part of the book hits very hard to the reader, because a reaction like that of Frederick to the death of one's parent is almost unimaginable. He says that his master may have been his biological father (a common occurrence on slave farms) and, the same as in his case, slaveholders sold away children from their mothers "too obviously to administer to their own lusts, and make a gratification of their wicked desires profitable as well as pleasurable." (Pg. 21) By this act many slaveholders had the "double relation of master and father."(Pg. 21) The story is saturated with accounts of severe beatings too numerous to site. Douglass goes from hearing the beating late at night as a small boy, to experiencing the whippings first hand as a young man. The "discipline ...

buy custom Signal Transduction in Neuropharmacology essay

buy custom Signal Transduction in Neuropharmacology essay According to Rosenzweig-Lipson, signal transduction is the process by which a cell can convert an input into an appropriate output, such as, the conversion of muscarinic stimulation of glandular tissue into a secretory response (Rosenzweig-Lipson, S. et al 239). In this study we examine the conformational change occurring in the receptor protein which is a consequence of agonistic binding that enables the receptor to interact with a second element in the system. It has been observed that G- protein transduces a signal to a third component an amplifying enzyme that elaborates an additional messenger which is the final component of a system, and activates a cascade of enzymes that leads to an increase in protein phosphorilation and an output or response (Sitaramayya and Ari 8). The membrane of a normal cell acts as a pathway for signals to pass through the intercellular molecules and it is that which activates transcription (Gilman 615649). These signals follow a certain rhythm and thi s series is referred to as signal transduction. Hence in this study, proteins are key components since they play very important roles in various inter-neuronal communications Membrane receptors, Second messengers, and Signal Transduction pathways When the neurotransmitter binds on to the receptor, ion channels permit the flow of ions. The receptors act on the protein channels by using a more indirect second messenger system. This is the G proteins inclusion in the transduction of from the membrane receptors to intercellular effectors. The binding of a neurotransmitter to a receptor activates the G protein this in turn causes the protein channels that gate the ion flow to open and cause migration of either ion. A new component of GPCR signal transduction Proteins are involved in several vital roles in the inter-neuronal communication. The ion channels found in the cell membranes are proteins. G proteins are heterotrimers that consist of three subunits, which include alpha, beta, and gamma (%uF061- (45 to 47 kD), %uF062- (35 kD), and %uF067- (7 to 9 kD). The alpha unit is an active subunit, which binds the guanine diphosphate in its stationary state. On the other hand, it exchanges the guanine diphosphate for the guanine triphosphate when active. During this active mode, it acts as the courier between the receptor sites and the effectors. The other sub units, which include beta and gamma, help the alpha subunit to attach to membranes. Therefore, beta and gamma subunits are deemed as passive units in the G proteins. The alpha unit activates the effectors and gets back to its resting state. The alpha unit returns to its resting state through cleaving the guanine triphosphate, attaching again to the guanine diphosphate, and joining up with the betagamma dimer (Malbon Morris 5). The %uF061-subunit binds GDP or GTP and has an intrinsic, slow GTPase activity. The G%uF061%uF062%uF067 complex in the inactivated state comprises of GDP at the nucleotide site. Binding of hormone to receptor stimulates a rapid exchange of GTP for GDP on G%uF061. When GTP binds, it causes G%uF061 to dissociate from G%uF062%uF067 and to associate with an effector protein like the adenylyl cyclase. Binding of G%uF061 (GTP) activates adenylyl cyclase. The adenylyl cyclase actively synthesizes cAMP as long as G%uF061(GTP) remains bound to it. However, the intrinsic GTPase activity of G%uF061 eventually hydrolyzes GTP to GDP, leading to dissociation of G%uF061(GDP) from adenylyl cyclase and re-association with the G%uF062%uF067 dimer, regenerating the inactive heterotrimeric G%uF061%uF062%uF067 complex. In order to facilitate neuron communication, the post-synaptic neuron should posses the receptor sites for the neurotransmitters discharged from the pre-synaptic neuron. Through binding on to the receptors, the neurotransmitters are expected to facilitate change in the post-synaptic neuron, which may cause a potential action in the post-synaptic neuron. G protein receptors are engaged in numerous diseases. An approximate of 30% of the medicinal drugs target the G protein coupled drugs. The G protein-coupled receptors engage two principal transduction pathways, which include the camp signal pathway and phosphatidylinositol (Malbon Morris 8). A simple process takes place for neuron communication to take place. The postsynaptic neuron must have receptor sites for neurotransmitters that were released by the pre-synaptic neurons. The neurotransmitters must bind on to the receptors hereby bringing about a change in the, post synaptic neuron and this is called an excitatory post synaptic potential or (EPSP). At the same time, it could be an inhibitory post synaptic potential or (IPSP). These two are produced depending on the concentrations of either sodium or chlorine ions existing in the neuron. According to Jeong, the change in concentration happens in the channeling of either sodium or chlorine ions that migration across the cell membrane (Jeong Ikeda pp. 335347). The neurotransmitter-receptor binding facilitates the opening of the protein channels. The receptor is sited on the top of the protein channel to simplify the opening of the protein channels. The neurotransmitter-receptor binding enables the protein channel to allow the ion flow. The protein channels can also be acted upon by the receptors in an indirect fashion through a second messenger system. The second messenger system is exemplified by a G proteins addition in the transduction of signals from the transmembrane receptors to intracellular effectors. Clearly, the neurotransmitter-receptor binding stimulates the G protein, which facilitates the opening of the protein channels for ion flow (Sitaramayya and Ari, 23). In a second messenger system, a ligand binds to a receptor while the G protein attaches to the receptor. The guanine diphosphate that is bound to the alpha unit is replaced by the guanine triphosphate thus the unit detaches from the rest of the G protein. In this process, the next session differs from the simple messenger system. The alpha unit fails to attach to a protein channel and instead binds to another membrane protein known as adenylyl cyclase. The Adenylyl cyclase converts adenosine triphosphate to cyclic monophosphate. The process is initiated after the alpha unit latches on to adenylyl cyclase. Furthermore, the cyclic adenosine monophosphate initiates another protein in the neuron known as protein kinease. Protein kinease is a component that is composed of two elements, which include regulatory unit and catalytic unit. Commonly, the regulatory unit scrutinizes the catalytic unit. The cyclic adenosine monophosphate, however, causes the two units to detach. The catalytic un it, which is the active component moves to the protein channels in the membrane of the ion and triggers them to open. The ion flow finally occurs and the excitatory post-synaptic potential or inhibitory post-synaptic potential are stimulated. Several second messenger systems similarly work effectively. Proteins: transducers of receptor-generated signals The G protein initiates a series of changes in the neuron and the ion channels open up. A receptor encounters a G protein in its active state. It is clear that the receptors and the G proteins are pre-coupled. The signal transduction relies on the form of the G protein. Adenylate cyclase enzyme is a type of a cellular protein that is regulated by the G protein. The activation of the Adenylate cyclase enzyme terminates when the G protein gets to the guanine diphosphate bound state. The Adenylate cyclases can also be activated in other methods, which regulate their activity. The heterotrimeric G proteins can engage in functional roles independent of the G proteins-coupled receptors. Apart from the heterotrimeric G proteins, other types of G proteins also play vital roles in the cell function. These proteins belong to a certain group known as small G proteins. They also perform their activities like the heterotrimeric G proteins. A G protein coupled receptor is a receptor that mediates the opening of the ion channels through a G protein. This component is involved in a system that renovates the external signals into an intracellular second messenger system. In this second messenger system, the neurotransmitter binds on to a receptor while the G protein attaches on to the receptor and becomes triggered. The alpha subunit, then binds on to the protein ion channel and cause it to open thus permitting ion flow. Therefore, signal transfer in this case is the vital role for the G protein. The function of G protein in the other version of the second messenger system is less undeviating. In this case, it does not activate the protein channels in the membrane. It activates a series of events that cause the opening of protein channels. This constitutes about seven membrane domains interconnected by three intercellular domains and three extracellular loops, an extra cellular N-terminal domain and an intracellular C- terminal domain. Each of the seven interconnected domains is composed of about 20- 27 amino acids. The GPRS span three environments and these are extracellular, intra-membrane as well as the intra-cellular. The conformal change of the central core will be responsible for the conformation of the intracellular loops and this will activate the binding and processes of the G protein. The activation of these proteins is then responsible for the activation of various intracellular signaling pathways. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been identified to be the target for more than half of the drugs currently on the market; this includes approximately 25% of the 100 top-selling drugs. Hence, they are considered the most important molecules in drug discovery, due to their role as receptors in many processe s in the body and their presence in all the body tissues. G-protein specificity The binding of the GPCR to some of the different proteins will determine the various inter-membrane and intracellular members resulting in the localizing of the receptors and the G protein independent signaling (Hildebrandt Iyengar, 4). These proteins include the tyrosine protein kinesis and scaffolding proteins. GPCRs can be classified according to five groups. These five families are classified according to their phylo-genetic origins. They are glutamate, rhodopsin, frizzled, adhesive, and secretin and these form the GRAFS classification system. The rhodopsin family makes up the largest portion and was formerly named as family one or family A. It has the largest number of receptors in the group and 700 members. The group has some similarities of phylogenetic characteristics, but also has some intrinsic characteristics. There are about four more classifications from the rhodopsin group. There are three classes of adrenergic receptors of the super family of G- protein coupled receptors and they mediate a large variety of peripheral as well as the central responses to the endogenous catecholamines. All of the adreno-receptor subfamilies are comprised of three receptor subtypes that that are categorized by a distinct heterotrimeric G protein coupling. One concept that shares characteristics with inverse agonism is that of protean agonism. In this way, some ligands display both characteristics of both agonism and inverse agonism in a single GPCR. This event is quite rare and has only been observed at a handful of GPCRs and is not well understood at the present, however, it provides some notion into how the ligands modulate the GPCR behavior. In normal theorem, any preparation that is used in the measurement of GPCR stimulation by agonists can also may be used to study the inhibitory effects that come about from inverse agonism. This is because both groups of agonists and inverse agonists produce their effects from balancing or modulating the active as well as the inactive receptors. However, there should be an amount of spontaneous receptor activity needed to measure individual effects of either class of ligand. Similarly, the detection of inverse agonism requires that spontaneous receptor activity be quite distinguishable from that of background noise. This according to experience will not be the actual case. The measuring of inverse agonism and its effects intrinsically is quite difficult. The conditions for doing the same therefore will be the same as by measuring the receptor activation from the agonists. When a ligand is found to have a negative effect on an agonist, independent GPCR then the one carrying out the experiment must find out if it is genuine. The presence of endogenous activating ligands also needs to be ruled out of the equation. If that is not possible then one need to demonstrate the effects of a strong inverse those of the neutral antagonists or weak inverse agonists overshadow agonists. At the same time, the confusing effects of the related receptor subtypes if any are present at the time should be considered. There is a differential set for G protein partners, which allow it to initiate different signaling pathways in order to trigger diverse and even opposed functional outcomes in response to the same stimuli. The distribution of tissue according to the different adrenal receptor subtypes varies quite differently while conferring to the different catelochamines (Ciruela 31). G protein coupled receptors can activate G proteins and initiate the signaling in the presence of the agonist. The receptor activity can be quite spontaneous but can be regulated by certain antagonists. A process that many refer to as inverse agonism causes this and the inverse agonists job is to produce biochemical effects that are opposite to the agonists. This will dispute with the theorem that many support as to state the antagonists lack intrinsic activity. This would suggest their work is to preclude the binding of agonists to the receptors solely. The work of inverse agonism has been displayed in a wide variet y of systems. These include endogenously and heterogeneously expressed GPCRs. On the other hand, the contribution of inverse agonism to the overall therapeutic effects of antagonism is hard to etermine considering the continual presence of the endogenous agonists in the normal physiological conditions that are set in the state. However, the proof to such evidence of awaits the confirmation and evidence that spontaneous receptor signaling is significant or it changes in terms of receptor density or distribution. These have to be attributable to the effects of inverse agonism at the cellular and the sub cellular level. These also occur in intact organisms Thus, inverse agonism can be assessed at the level of the receptor, the G protein, and the effector as well as the effects that follow downstream. When considering the technique that works best in this issue it might depend on the system that is currently under investigation. Mall of the ends in this case, may not necessarily yield the equivalent results that many expect thus, it would be worthwhile trying to assign the ligand activity to multiple levels. The receptor, however, facilitates binding of the inverse agonists which increases by the guanine nucleotides whereas the agonists have an opposite reaction of decreased binding. Receptor-dependent specificity The past decade has seen many events whereby cell surface carbohydrates play a role in signal transduction events. This was hypothesized some time ago that the complex structure of cell surface carbohydrates was there to play an informational role (Haltiwanger 593). The numerous developmentally relevant pathways are affected by proteoglycans as well as the recent importance demonstrations of fucose modifications in notch and nodal signaling. This suggests that the time for uncovering the involvement of the glycans in signaling is just beginning. Many other proteins are involved in developmental or signaling events that are predicted to go through modification with O-fucose. At the same time, the EGF sites are also modified at consensus sites between the first as well as the second conserved cysteines. Many of the predicted O-glucose sites on the notch receptor have conservation because of evolution. This proposes that the modifications will play an important role in notch signaling. The other important form of O-fucose is mapped on to the consensus site on the thrombospondin type 1 repeats. However, this type repeats on a heparan-sulfate-binding domain and that suggests that the alteration may activate reactions at the site. These results and progress suggests that the surface has hardly been scratched the surface in terms of the role of glycosolation in the regulation of signal transduction. The objective is to find a link between these factors and the brain in neuropharmacology. Thus, we must become fully aware of what it means. Neuropharmacology is study of drugs that interact with neurons in the brain and this affects the mood, sensation, thinking and overall behavior. There are some of these alterations in behavior that result from drug intake but not all. RGS proteins as drug target GPCRs are excellent targets for pharmaceutical treatments since they comprise of the most widely screened classes of signal transduction targets (Auld, et al., 2002). Major diseases involve the malfunction of the receptors; hence they become the most important drug target for pharmacological intervention. Thus, changes result in the actions of the brains chemical transmitters, which is under the field of brain neuro-chemistry. A lot of interest is coming to the fore over molecular neuroscience in both clinical as well as basic research. This is because of new findings on topics such as neuro-peptides, neuro-hormones that have been disseminated into a number of topics that keeps on increasing with the time. The topic focuses on new drugs that will be used in neurology which some consider as the final frontier of the medical world. The aim is to also modify the processes of the brain on the premise of improving on some characteristics. These include memory; mood as well as attention de ficits that people may have and give enhancements in these sectors. However, they would not be impaired by disease or illness beforehand thus; it would cause much debate on the ethical field. There is also a field dedicated to this known as neuro-ethics. This field is defined as the study of legal and social questions that arise when scientific study and discoveries of the brains processes come into the medical field in practice. The problem in the real essence lies with the organ. It is the brain, which we are dealing with and it is responsible for making all of us unique in our own individual way. This gives us our personalitys emotions, memories emotions, dreams, and creative abilities, (Neuro-ethics 1). Therefore, it is the driving force behind the motives of our individual actions. Many out there would support the medical development of the sector of neuroscience in order to help deal with mental illness as well as basic research to further our understanding. However, they would rather the journey end there, as they are not too comfortable with getting to know too much about the human brain. The human brain is a special piece of art and holds a special place because it gives everyone his or her own autonomy. Manipulating this organ is not the same as operating and altering another part of the body like the lungs, kidney, or the heart. It is because of its sensitive nature that not too many people would be thrilled about giving stimulating drugs to alter intelligence of mood set up. This would be manipulating a persons character and would cause many uncomfortable feelings. Enhancement at this stage is not confined to neuroscience but there is a sense that something is quite distinct about enhancing things to do with cognitive functions as well as behavior. RGS inhibitors as clinical therapeutics Neural disorders for one have their origin in form of shifts and delicate balances in the neuro-chemicals that could originate from cell damage of degeneration. However, the brain is quite flexible and capable of restoration of certain imbalances. This can be done by increasing the sensitivity of the brain to a certain neuro-transmitter. However, this is not to say that it cannot also fail. When a substance such as dopamine is depleted, especially when talking about Parkinsons disease, then a disease or severe neural disorder may come, as a result. The fundamental research in neuropharmacology investigates the processes going on the brain and how drugs introduced to that system interact with those processes. One of the research tools that many like to employ is the building models of the neuro-chemical as well as the neuro-physiological processes. These aim to fit the data on the laboratory studies on the animal models. In a certain pharmacy department in a university, this happened by electrophysiological and microdyalisis methods in order to track the nerve signals. Nerves propagate their electric signals by conducting an electric pulse and this is known as an action potential. Endogenous RGS-protein function The signal in turn activates release of some transmitter chemicals at the terminals of the cell that affect the receptors of the next nerve cell in the relay that in turn continues the cycle. On the other hand, placing an electrode inside the brain will allow the individual to monitor further electrical activity. The release of the transmitters will be monitored while using the micro dialysis probe. This probe would also be used to release these chemicals locally and measure the full effects. At the pharmacy department at this university, neuro-physiological pathways are studied using two techniques. The specific studies that occur when relating several variables together that gives an understanding of the function of the brain area. To give a basic visual description of the neural circuits, bow and arrow models can be drawn that represent negative and positive influence relations. These models will be further tested for their correct nature and in this way, used to explain the functioning of this system. In this way, newly developed drug compounds will give a foothold in this sector because they will play the role of revising and refining the model as well as the experiments that are conducted. The model in turn will play the role of getting to know the effects. This would be in such a way , that if a drug used were to selectively favor one particular type of pathway then, it could still be used to further explore the function of that pathway. The data acquired from this may serve to refine the model and in this way, the effects may be explained as well as predicted. At this university, there is a group of nuclei called the base ganglia. These nuclei play an all-important role in the control of voluntary behavior. Scope of review in Parkinsons disease In Parkinsons disease a portion of them that do not survive decay due to a cause that yet remains unknown. However, this portion is a supplier of an important neuro-transmitter called dopamine. This transmitter is postulated to perform a modulating function. It is also thought to create a delicate balance in the signals that are bound for the cortex. In order for this to work, however, a schematic model should be used to represent neural activity in the brain ganglia especially according to Parkinsons disease. If this were visually illustrated on a paper, an arrow would serve as a neural pathway. This would consist of a bundle of individual nerve cells. The box in this case, would represent the nucleus or a clustering of nerve cells. The model gives a dual function to dopamine. It shows a direct path from the striatum to the SNR while inhibiting the indirect path via the STN. The balance creates an inhibition in two fronts, which are the thalamus and the brainstem. However, when it becomes nearly depleted then the balance becomes disrupted once again and this results in the increase of activation in an area known as the SNR. This state of hyper-activation in this region causes inhibition of brainstem neurons, which go hand in hand with some symptoms of Parkinsons disease. Most of the traditional research that goes to Parkinsons disease focuses on restoring levels of dopamine in the brain. However, the compound cannot be administered as an oral substitute because it cannot go through the blood brain barrier. On the other hand, it was found that L-dopa could pass through the barrier and it metabolizes while in the brain to form Dopamine. Thus, at the present it is the most successful method of dealing with Parkinsons symptoms. Possible clinical uses of RGS inhibitors Similarly administering L-dopa to the brain raises dopamine levels in other parts of the body. This high concentration of dopamine in the body on the other hand, causes feelings of nausea as a side effect. This is due to stimulation of dopamine receptors in other parts of the body. The therapeutic effect however, declines over a period like three to five years. Further research into the issue is finding out the effects of highly selective dopamine receptors that interact with certain dopamine receptors. The functions of the brain are quite dynamic. In neuro-biology, it is described as complex dynamic system. In physics the tools that people use for modeling dynamic systems is by employing differential equations. The variables show the properties of the system. This variables change over the course of time. When the relationship between those variables is ascertained then one can get the value of these values and thus, one can see the original state of the system. Therefore, empirical study of both the brain and the behavior of Parkinsons research will result in correlating variables of the activation frequency of the nuclei as well as the neural pathways and local concentrations of different types on neurotransmitters. RGSG interaction site the A-site (mark Herlitze (Eur. J. Biochem) However, these relations are not enough to dub the equation as quantitative thus; the relation is only seen as qualitative. There are many results on study on the brain whereby the change of one variable in one direction would cause another variable to be perceived as moving in another direction, as a result. Here the theory would explain why in Parkinsons disease, the activation of the thalamus decreases with the decrease of concentration of DA in the striatum (Peijnenburg 351). In the event that these events are insufficient to provide a model with the help of an ordinary differential equation, they can still be represented by a more abstract qualitative equation. G protein signaling in the C Until the recent past, it was thought that synaptic transmission was conceptualized some processes where the neurotransmitters would act through their receptors and cause changes in conductances of certain ion channels to cause excitatory or inhibitions on the postsynaptic potential. If taken in this view the human brain would seem to be a very complex diagram whereby the complexity of the visual representation would be in the complex wiring. It has become quite evident over the past twenty years that neurotransmitters elicit complicated effects on the neurons that serve as their targets. This led to a better and complete understanding of synaptic transmission. In addition to the fast elicitation of the post synaptic potentials and the neuro-transmitter receptor interactions influence most of the activities of the target neuron through a complicated network of intracellular messenger systems. The activation of most catecholamine receptors and most of the other types of receptors is transmitted to the intracellular sites via the G proteins. These in turn couple the receptors to other effector proteins. These would include the numerous intracellular second messenger pathways as well as the ion channels. The generation of these second messengers leads to various physiological effects courtesy to their arrival. In most of the cases, the intracellular cascades would involve the changes that occur in protein phosphporylation. This would be the removal of protein phosphatases from the target phosphoproteins or the addition happening through protein kinases. The altered phosphorylation of the phosphoproteins could also be considered as a third messenger. This also alters the physiological nature and activity. This happens with all of the neurotransmitters. Catelochamine regulation of the second messenger and the protein pathways influence a big part of the neuron function through the phosphorylation of different types of the neural proteins. These types of intracellular processes produce some sort of quick response to the neurotransmitter and this can be regulation of the ion channel or neuronal firing rate (Ross Wilkie, 795827). At the same time, these processes may produce a short-term modulatory effect on the neuronal function such as the regulation of the response of the neuron relating to similar or different neurotransmitters. These changes can also cause long-term modulation effects on the functioning of the neuron and this can be expressed through gene expression regulation. These changes would require altered synthesis of receptors as well as ion channels, cellular proteins and other forms of learning. There may be an exception of synaptic transmission that is mediated through receptors containing intrinsic enzyme activity or ion channels. The family of the trans-membrane could be involved in signaling in the nervous system. The G proteins get their name from their ability to bind with guanine nucleotides, which are guanine diphosphate and triphosphate as termed earlier. Since more and more is becoming known in the field, additional information is being revealed on certain materials otherwise thought to be dormant. Zinc for one, has long been thought to be a mere static component of the protein family. It was thought to only provide catalytic or structural functions to the group. There is recent research that indicates there is a further use for the metal, especially a particular type known as an intracellular pool of labile zinc, in signal transduction. The homeostasis process of zinc is under tight control, whereby, a specialized system of transport proteins regulates the entry and the export through the plasma membrane and through intracellular distribution. While in the cell, zinc can be stored in the vesicles. These are called zincosomes and the regulation on the labile zinc in the plasma is observed (Wu et al 1q31.). There are several reports that describe the fluctuations of labile zinc happening after the stimulation of cells on several established pathways. These include mitogen activated protein kinases and calcium that has been showing up. The important point is that is has been discovered that labile zinc is essential for well-known and established physiological signals. The investigations of the molecular mechanism of how zinc exerts the effects have come to identify that it directly reacts with the several components of signaling the pathways, which include the interleukin receptor associated kinase 1. These observations conclude that zinc is a second bivalent metal ion. Actions of the ANS on the cardiovascular system It also has the function as the second messenger in the cardiovascular system. In any case, it would seem that signal transduction is the key. The term first made the mark in biological literature in the seventies. It appeared as a title word as early as 1979. Most [physical scientists and electronic engineers had earlier used the term to conversion of energy or information from one form to another. An example being that a microphone transduces sound waves to electric signals. However, attention went to the biological application and the GTP and GTP binding proteins in the metabolic regulation. The term was borrowed from other fields to describe its role. The use of the term grew in momentum and by the year, 2000 about 12 percent of all of the papers that used the word cell had mentions of the word transduction. In the main issue when considering signal transduction, there is concern about the external influences and this could mean the presence of specific hormones and how they coul d affect what happens inside the target cells. There is some difficulty however, since the hormones being hydrophilic meaning the substances are unable to pass through. Thus, their influence is exerted from the outside and the membranes of the cells are very thin, and effectively impermeable to ions as well as polar molecules. Even foe small molecules such as urea, the permeability is still about ten thousand times lower than that of water. Thus for a molecule like that of adrenaline the permeation is still quite too low to measure. Thus, the evolution of these receptors has accompanied the development of the mechanisms and it is these, which permit the external chemical signaling molecules. These are the first messengers to direct the activities within the cells in many ways with high specificity. Signal transduction has delved into the world of the intracellular activities as those within the cell. There should also be a consideration of the adherence of the cell surface to other cells and enquires how this works in terms of asking how it affects the responses to the soluble agonists such as growth factors as well as the how the soluble agonists a ffect the cellular adherence. The event itself is an important in the maintenance of the stem cell compartments as well as the epithelial mesenchymal transition. These molecules affect the adhesion and therefore serve as the targets for the signals that are generated within the cell (Zhong Neubig, pp. 837845). These are two exemplified aspects in regulation of survival, regulation as well as leukocyte trafficking. Adhesion molecules are very important especially when it comes to the nerve cell differentiation, functioning of the synapse as well as gene expression in the epithelial cells. At first, these adhesive molecules were thought to be a form of glue but this turned out to be an untruth. At the present, they are recognized as receptors and the act as signaling molecules. However, the ligands that are involved with these adhesion molecules are insoluble. They are presented themselves on the adjacent cells by an extracellular matrix that happens to be on the surface of epithelia, or by a mass of connective tissue. These adhesive molecules development became known in the 1970s as a result of an investigation interestingly about the brain. It was realized that the organizational system of the cells that were in the central nervous system needed a systematic and dynamic process of cell gui dance as well as cell adhesion. This would go on to drive the direction seeking processes of neutrite growth and the formation of synapses. On this account, there were two main ideas that were considered. One was suggested during the development in order to establish precise cell-to-cell contacts. The interacting cells would each present the adequate unique adhesion molecules that would fit into each other like a lock and key simulation. The second idea would be that the set of adhesion molecules would be limited although their building capacity is limited over time. For instance, one could say that offering the same molecule during the process of outgrowth. This would be interpreted as a low affinity state. The cell would then turn to convert the adhesion molecule into a high affinity state. This might help in binding to a counter part in a nearby cell. It appears that there is truth to both of the propositions. The number of the adhesion molecules is limited and their capacity to interact with the counter receptors is regulated at the levels of expression and by their state of binding. In the part of immunology, the set of adhesion molecules that is set on the cell surface as well as the state of activation is dubbed as the area code (De Vries et al, pp 235-271). Some chemicals in the brain assist with the functions of releasing the synapses with the neurotransmitters. Neuro-peptides are released at the synapse region along with the neurotransmitters. They differ from the neurotransmitters in the fact that they are found at lower concentrations and are derived from larger inactive molecules that would be precursors, synthesized in the soma. These neuro-peptide precursors are transported down the axon while they are in the process of getting processed and cleaved. They are then degraded right after the synaptic release. The precursor peptides can then be processed differently according to the different neurons. They can act as multiple sites whereby they include the pre synaptic and post synaptic sites this could then include cells that are far away from their site of release. Peptide release however, requires calcium. The quantity of the release in this case is proportional to the neuronal firing. Most of the peptide binding sites are G- prot ein coupled receptors that activate enzyme effectors or ion channels. Many psychoactive drugs alter the neuronal signaling by acting as endogenous transmitters to activate neurotransmitter receptors. The other drugs act by altering synthesizing the release, uptake, or degradation of a neurotransmitter. The chronic use of psychotropic drugs exerts the common effects through the regulation of neuronal signaling elements that would occur at a variety of levels. These include the neurotransmitters, G proteins, second messengers, as well as the protein kinases. Chronic drug agonist treatment introduces the down regulation of the receptors by reducing the receptor synthesis that takes place (Hammer and Kaplan, 59). Other drugs such as anti psychotics may produce effects at a variety of levels, which include genomic, neuro-chemical, as well as neuro-physiological. At this, level the acute treatment antipsychotic treatment of the dopaminmergic neurons. On the other hand, chronic antipsychotic drug treatment produces the delayed inactivation of dopamine neuron firing. The condition of the brain and the reactions to different drugs affect whether one would be an addict or not. For one, neurosomatic patients do not fit the criteria for addiction prone people. This is in the same way, that chronic pain patients are not prone to addictions. Drug abuse in terms of medicine would be termed as craving higher amounts and doses of drugs that would cause acute damage to the patient upon intake (Goldstein, 331). Some chronic pain patients would argue their dosage requires escalation on a regular basis; however, they still hold to the line. These individuals are the ones at risk and have the most cases, of dropping from counseling. The sensitization of behavior encompasses the ability of stimulated cells NAc cells to secrete peptides as well as related substances. Signal transducing pathways may also include the regulation of alternative splicing. In this way, the use of alternative exons keeps changing during the development or in response to other stimuli. Neurons can change their molecular structure when they become activated, (Chen Lambert, 2000). This can be done by communication with other neurons or by receiving information from the outside. In the basic definition of the sense, a drug is a substance that brings about a biological change within the functions of a cell. The agonist, in this case, binds to and activates the receptor. The agonists come in various forms whereby a full agonist binds and activates the receptor with full efficiency. A good example in this case, of a full agonist is isoproterenol and its mimics the ligand epinephrine. Other drugs act as pharmaceutical antagonists. They might bind the receptors but do not lead to any signaling by the cell. On the contrary, they interfere with the ability of an agonist to activate the receptor. In this case, the effect of a pure or neutral antagonist depends entirely on it preventing the binding of the agonist molecules and blocking their biological functions. An endogenous ligand like serotonin may bind and stimulate the receptors that couple to different subsets of the G proteins. It is becoming apparent that the relative efficacy of compounds may actually depen d on the conditions used in the experiment. Inverse agonists on the other hand, are easier to identify with functional screens versus classical binding essays. When a receptor lacks the constitutive activity, a neutral agonist in turn acts as the neutral competitive agonist (Chan Otte, pp. 10-20). This was emphasized by a recent report where it was thought to be the neutral antagonists of the 5HT, which were shown to be the inverse agonists. Future prospects The regulations of signal transduction within critical regions of the brain have effects on the intracellular signal generated by multiple neurotransmitter systems. The effects represent putative mediators of the therapeutic actions of the available antidepressants and mood stabilizers, mediated by their effects on a network of interconnected neurotransmitter pathways. For many refractory patients with brain disorders, new drugs that resemble the "traditional" drugs that alter neurotransmitter levels either directly or indirectly and those that bind to cell surface receptors which are of little medical importance (Arshavsky Pugh, pp. 11-14). This happens so because of the assumption that the target receptors are functionally intact, furthermore the altered synaptic activity will be transduced to modify the postsynaptic "throughput" of the system. However, abnormalities existing in signal transduction pathways suggest that improved refractory to conventional medications is obtained b y direct targeting of postreceptor sites. Discoveries on a variety of mechanisms involved in the formation and inactivation of second messengers allows for development of pharmacological agents designed to "site-specifically" target signal transduction pathways. However, this is more complex than the development of receptor-specific drugs. This has made it possible to design novel agents that may have implications on the second messenger systems due to their heterogeneous nature at the molecular and cellular level linked to receptors in various ways and expressed in different cell types in different stoichiometries. Furthermore, since signal transduction pathways show unique characteristics depending on the rate of guanine nucleotide exchange, G protein conformational states, GTP hydrolysis, interaction with different RGS proteins, and cytosol-to-membrane translocation of PKC isozymes and receptor kinases, and many other ways, they provide in built-in targets for relative specificity of action, that relies on the "set point" of the substrate. In this study, we can summarize that due to technological advances in both biochemistry and molecular biology, understanding the complexities of the regulation of neuronal function is greatly enhanced in our abilities. Buy custom Signal Transduction in Neuropharmacology essay

Franklin Delano Roosevelt Annotated Bibliography

Franklin Delano Roosevelt - Annotated Bibliography Example Theodore Roosevelt who was Franklin Roosevelt’s cousin made a great impact on him when he became President in 1903. Theodore’s great reforms and his spectacular style of leadership left a lasting impression in the life of Franklin and this is what served as a moulding factor for his own philosophy of leadership. After attending the Columbia Law School, he took up jobs in different capacities such as working for Wall Street that mainly dealt with Corporate Law. However, after Woodrow Wilson got elected in 1912 as President, Franklin was given the post of Assistant Secretary of the Navy. This post also served to influence Franklin’s leadership philosophy to a great extent and this influence is seen reflected in the many reforms that he brought about in the Navy. Roosevelt campaigned extensively to expand the Navy since he was well aware of the opposition faced by them from the Pacifists. To counter this opposition he set up a Navy Reserve which comprised of a group of trained men who would be very useful especially during war time and other crisises. Roosevelt’s particular philosophy of leadership lay in the fact of good communication and maintaining good relations with others by negotiating dealings in a very peaceful manner. His philosophy led him to become a very ardent supporter of President Woodrow Wilson’s ‘League of Nations’ whose focus was to put an end to wars in the future.

Human resources case study assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Human resources case study assignment - Essay Example IN 2013 total revenue generated by Babcock was 3.2 billion pounds. Trust to bring best of the products, service and long term value for shareholders. Very important issue which I see in Babcock is gender ratio in employees, majority of the employees are male and only 20% of employees are female which is not a very good number. Female representation in any organization gives a softer image to the world and another aspect is that female empowerment shows a much positive approach of an organization. Babcock should focus on this female hiring to market Babcock in business sector. Another negative point of Babcock is that they are resistant to change, business sector has one rule and that is adaptability, business growth depends upon upgrading and adapting new styles trends and procedures if they are good for company so Babcock needs to expand business by taking Babcock to different countries. This report will focus on flaws which are present in Babcock’s structure and if they elim inate those flaws then Babcock will grow as double speed as it is now. To conduct any research work it is necessary to review the literature of the study. The literature review provides us information about the work done in the specific area with theoretical framework on which the suggested solution of the problem can be built. The literature on the problem is somewhat dispersed from different sources to get a better understanding of the problem under study (KRÄMER, RINGLING & YANG, 2006). A brief review of the literature is given as: A student accountant( September 2008) in his paper explained how business process is important for defining business strategy and suggested ways through which organization can analyze performance of their already existing policies and procedures and how they can change and improve the existing system in order to meet the

Research Assignment Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Assignment - Research Paper Example It is worth mentioning in this regard that the company has taken several precautionary measures relating to environment by identifying and applying production processes imposing a minimum impact on the natural environment (Campbell Soup Company, â€Å"Nourishing Our Consumers, Neighbors, Employees, and Our Planet†). In order to combine the company’s efforts in attaining the predetermined objectives towards developing a sustainable environment, the company has established and divided its long term goals and targets into six basic areas which can be identified as water conservation, sustainable agriculture, carbon intensity, waste management, energy, and sustainable packaging. Thesis Statement The discussion conducted henceforth attempts to critically analyze the role of Campbell Soup Company in discharging its Corporate Social Responsibilities (CSR) with due consideration to its performance over the recent years. Facts Related to the CSR Activities of the Campbell Soup C ompany In relation to its CSR activities, the primary goal of the company is to reduce the use of water and Green House Gas (GHG) emissions in the process of manufacturing products, i.e. various food products. The other supporting goals include reduction of energy usage upto 35% and augmentation of energy sources up to 40% utilizing the renewable sources of energy. Furthermore, the company aims to recycle 95% of wastes generated due to its global operations thereby reducing the use of water and mitigating carbon footprints upto 20% (Campbell Soup Company, â€Å"Nourishing Our Consumers, Neighbors, Employees, and Our Planet†). As per the recent facts, Campbell’s performance during the fiscal year 2011 (i.e. from Aug 1, 20110 to July 31, 2011) and its achievements in the fiscal year 2012 can be identified as listed below: The company has been constructed on 60 acres of a solar field with 10-MW power generating capacity In its largest manufacturing site, 24000 sun trackin g panels have been installed to generate at least 15 percent of the electricity needed for its operations The company’s donation to environmental control measures increased in the current fiscal year to $40 million The company has also introduced an innovative initiative titled as ‘The Way We Work’ in order to build safe and socially responsible working environment to ensure integrated results The company has also instigated school support programs by launching Campbell’s Labels for Education with an aim to generate environmental awareness amid the society The company has also declared a charitable commitment of $10 in its home town in New Jersey Corporate Social Responsibilities Issues Faced by Campbell Soup Company With due significance to Campbell’s worldwide operations, the company has been identified to witness four major issues related to its CSR activities. The issues majorly relates with nourishing consumers, neighbors or community members, employees and the planet at large. Nourishing Consumers The company plans to invest significantly towards the enhancement of innovation capabilities

I will attach the documents Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

I will attach the documents - Essay Example The Psychological Legacy of Slavery Black attitude towards: Work The author has explained that the African-Americans were bonded by slavery and they toiled day and night not for their own profit but for the wellbeing of their masters. Naturally, there is a general inclination among the Black people about work – hatred. As a result, they started hating work and despised whenever they were made to it. The author believes that even after several years, those memories have strong effect on them. I would agree with the author on this view because the Black people express their hatred towards doing work very blatantly and survive their lives through other means such as cheating and gambling. Although, those works are considered illegal, they still do it just because of the pain they feel about their ancestor’s slavery years. Poverty The author has continued his reasoning about the hatred towards poverty on the same lines of work. He has explained that, just as they saw work b eing forced on to them by slavery, material things were also owned only by the masters and hence the same hatred was passed onto the material objects too. According to the author, they still consider properties to be masters and hence continue their hatred against that. But, in my opinion, this does not exist in current minds of the people. As one could see, Black people are also obsessed about material properties just like normal human beings. One could see in streets, Black people buying land, hats and other ornamental stuffs. Hence, I would certainly disagree with the author about Black’s attitude towards property. The Clown According to the author the clowning acts of the Blacks is an impact of slavery as the Black people tried to persuade their masters through clowning to which the masters responded affirmatively. The author attributes this reasoning to the current trends in media industry where most of the Black people are quiet successful in clowning themselves. I do a gree with the author as he has provided enough evidences regarding the presence of clowning acts during slavery times. Also, it is a well-known fact that any traditional act, as long as it provides good deeds always gets transcended to future generations. Personal inferiority I agree with the author on this attitude from Blacks. There is serious proof for the feeling of inferiority complex existing in all minds of the Black people who exist in America. This feeling can be easily identified with several violent incidents prevalent all over the States, done mostly by the Blacks – a direct outcome of such an inhibited feeling. Community Division I certainly agree with the author that slavery was the prime reason for instilling in the minds of the Blacks, a strong sense of discomfort against the White community. The treatment meted out to them in terms of slavery was unjustifiable and it hurt them so deeply that their roots are grounded firmly against the concept of unity. Family life In my opinion the author’s account of a discretionary family life is not agreeable because it is not evident in all the societies of Blacks. One could see that they are united within the family showing great interest towards their kin and relatives. Color Discrimination The author has

Franklin D. Roosevelt Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Franklin D. Roosevelt - Research Paper Example Throughout his career, Roosevelt gained immense success in all the positions he held; this made him one of the most celebrated leaders America has ever had. Born on January 30th, 1882 in New York to James Roosevelt and Sara Delano Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt was the only child from this wealthy family. During his younger days, he received home training from home tutors until he was 14 years when he joined Groton school in Massachusetts (Coker 11). After his studies in Groton school, he went to study a bachelor’s degree in history in Harvard University for three years. Roosevelt later joined Columbia University to study law. In 1907, he exited from the university after passing the bar examination, which allowed him to practice law for three years in New York (Renshaw 15). During his studies in Columbia University, Roosevelt had married Anna Eleanor Roosevelt in 1905. Roosevelt and Anna got six children, and Roosevelt spent most of his time with his children (Black 266). In 1910, Roosevelt made his first attempt in politics where he vied for the New York City senator through the Democratic Party. Roosevelt emerged the winner and became the New York senator; he held this position till 1914 after his re-election in 1912. In the senate, he served under the Wilson administration as the assistant secretary of the navy. Roosevelt gained immense experience from this position after closely working with Josephus Daniels who was the secretary of the navy at the time (Renshaw 16). Roosevelt demonstrated exemplary leadership skills while working as the assistant secretary to the navy, something which was noted by democrat leaders. By the time America was getting into World War I, Roosevelt had already put America’s naval plant into its most efficient way to fight the battle. Roosevelt was also hugely instrumental in advising the United States on the best war plan on the battle of the North Sea that helped in weakening the

I will attach the documents Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

I will attach the documents - Essay Example The Psychological Legacy of Slavery Black attitude towards: Work The author has explained that the African-Americans were bonded by slavery and they toiled day and night not for their own profit but for the wellbeing of their masters. Naturally, there is a general inclination among the Black people about work – hatred. As a result, they started hating work and despised whenever they were made to it. The author believes that even after several years, those memories have strong effect on them. I would agree with the author on this view because the Black people express their hatred towards doing work very blatantly and survive their lives through other means such as cheating and gambling. Although, those works are considered illegal, they still do it just because of the pain they feel about their ancestor’s slavery years. Poverty The author has continued his reasoning about the hatred towards poverty on the same lines of work. He has explained that, just as they saw work b eing forced on to them by slavery, material things were also owned only by the masters and hence the same hatred was passed onto the material objects too. According to the author, they still consider properties to be masters and hence continue their hatred against that. But, in my opinion, this does not exist in current minds of the people. As one could see, Black people are also obsessed about material properties just like normal human beings. One could see in streets, Black people buying land, hats and other ornamental stuffs. Hence, I would certainly disagree with the author about Black’s attitude towards property. The Clown According to the author the clowning acts of the Blacks is an impact of slavery as the Black people tried to persuade their masters through clowning to which the masters responded affirmatively. The author attributes this reasoning to the current trends in media industry where most of the Black people are quiet successful in clowning themselves. I do a gree with the author as he has provided enough evidences regarding the presence of clowning acts during slavery times. Also, it is a well-known fact that any traditional act, as long as it provides good deeds always gets transcended to future generations. Personal inferiority I agree with the author on this attitude from Blacks. There is serious proof for the feeling of inferiority complex existing in all minds of the Black people who exist in America. This feeling can be easily identified with several violent incidents prevalent all over the States, done mostly by the Blacks – a direct outcome of such an inhibited feeling. Community Division I certainly agree with the author that slavery was the prime reason for instilling in the minds of the Blacks, a strong sense of discomfort against the White community. The treatment meted out to them in terms of slavery was unjustifiable and it hurt them so deeply that their roots are grounded firmly against the concept of unity. Family life In my opinion the author’s account of a discretionary family life is not agreeable because it is not evident in all the societies of Blacks. One could see that they are united within the family showing great interest towards their kin and relatives. Color Discrimination The author has

American Art in the Early 20th Century Assignment

American Art in the Early 20th Century - Assignment Example As a prototype of cubism, each of the objects in the painting are broken, analyzed individually and brought together in an abstract form. This avant-garde style then shows a story through subjects from a variety of viewpoints instead of simply one viewpoint- a concept that fits perfectly into the philosophy of culture and the world. Because viewpoints about this world also intersect at some point, many of the surfaces of the objects depicted in Guernica intersect as well. An example of this is the impression of a horse in the right of the painting, in which a human skull intersects the horse’s body while a bull seems to protrude beneath it, the horse’s knee cap contouring the bull’s nose on the ground. Because Guernica has a classic and surreal style to it, the use of a bull or a Minotaur as a classical figure of terror and as an influence of the surrealists on Pablo Picasso also appears in Guernica. Finally, even though the spatial elements of the painting form a sense of discontinuity, one can feel through other formal elements of fine arts that Guernica is all about the cruelty, viciousness and despair in times of

Prejudice vs Discrimination Essay Example for Free

Prejudice vs Discrimination Essay Typewrite a 1 ? to 2 page paper comparing and contrasting prejudice and discrimination. Relate the use of stereotyping and racial profiling to prejudice and discrimination. Merriam-Websters Dictionary defines prejudice and discrimination as: Prejudice (1) : injury or damage resulting from some judgment or action of another in disregard of ones rights; especially : detriment to ones legal rights or claims (2) a. (1) : preconceived judgment or opinion (2) : an adverse opinion or leaning formed without just grounds or before sufficient knowledge b : an instance of such judgment or opinion c : an irrational attitude of hostility directed against an individual, a group, a race, or their supposed characteristics. Discrimination (1) a. : the act of discriminating b : the process by which two stimuli differing in some aspect are responded to differently (2) : the quality or power of finely distinguishing (3) a. : the act, practice, or an instance of discriminating categorically rather than individually b : prejudiced or prejudicial outlook, action, or treatment The main distinction between prejudice and discrimination is found in Michael LeMays definition of discrimination, where he says Discrimination is applied prejudice. As in the definition above, prejudice is some preconceived notion about an individual, a group, or a race that demonstrate some sort of judgment upon them. This idea of prejudice is usually kept inside of the individual, so as to have a quiet judgment among people. Discrimination, however, is prejudice put into practice. Those who discriminate actively practice prejudice; it is no longer kept inside, but rather openly practiced against the people. Prejudice is best described as an attitude towards a certain group of peoples based solely on their membership in that social or ethnic group, whereas discrimination are actions taken against those members, the behavioral manifestation of prejudice. The practices of prejudice and discrimination stem from an individuals perception of a certain group ?these predetermined perceptions of a group usually come from stereotypes of a people, or racial profiling. LeMays definition of stereotypes is this: Oversimplistic and Overexaggerated beliefs about a group, most often acquired second hand. These images are highly resistant to change. Stereotyping often derive from social categorization and the idea of ? in group vs. ?out group. Social categorizations is sort of the lumping or classification of people into groups based on common characteristics among them, while the concept of the ? in group versus the ? out group is based on a ? we vs. ?they view, by Peter Rose. The difference between the two is that in social categorization, the person removes themself from their judgment, whereas in the ? we vs. ?they approach, the person is included among others in their judgment, but those judged are not part of their own majority group. This process of thought views ? we in favorable terms, and ? they negatively. The impact of stereotypes, as I have stated, directly affect the perceptions of a people in a negative light; when we think of those people, these traits come to mind ? when we meet people from this group, we will focus more on those traits and process them before others. Stereotyping affects our social judgments about a group of people: how much we like the person, our mood and attitudes toward the person, as well as our expectations from that person. Racial profiling is not much off from the principles of stereotyping. Racial profiling is the use of race as a consideration in suspect profiling or other law enforcement practices. This ties into stereotyping in that we suspect suspicious activity from a particular race or people based solely on their ethnicity. A common example of racial profiling would be DWB or driving while black. This is the practice of police or other law enforcement officers targeting African Americans for traffic stops because they believe that African Americans are more likely to be engaged in criminal activity (racial profiling, www. ethnicmajority. com). Overall, one could say that one instance leads to another. Stereotyping can lead to prejudice, which can lead to discrimination. Stereotyping fuels prejudice, though people are not willing to admit this ? they will not admit to stereotyping or being prejudiced, nor discriminating, yet all practices and beliefs of these are rampant today.

Influence of Magazines on Beauty | Cross-Cultural Analysis

Influence of Magazines on Beauty | Cross-Cultural Analysis INTRODUCTION Beauty is not concrete and may vary from culture to culture changing over time and shifting according to location. Beauty is an image which has been created by society to which woman and men have had to subject themselves to be real. The ideology of beauty or what is accepted as being the right appearance has been created by society and largely propagated by media. For United States of the 1950s Marilyn Monroe was the pinnacle of beauty which soon changed to Twiggy in the 1960s. While porcelain skin is valued in China, scarification of the skin and decorating it with tattoos is considered as a status symbol in Africa. Thus the physical attributes and ideas attached to beauty vary across cultures. Womens magazine industry is understood as a monolithic meaning producer, circulating magazines that contain messages and signs about the nature of femininity that serve to promote and legitimate dominant interests. (Anna Gough- Yates). A majority of feminist critics argue that media is responsible for establishing and promoting gender differences and inequalities in society. In respect media persons are considered responsible for reinforcing capitalism and patriarchy; manipulating society to attain increased circulation figures. Magazines are a great source, to study the society. Recording changes, from the purely fashion magazine couture age of 1920s, to lifestyle and home of the 1940s when domestic help was rare and woman to a personal interest in their homes. To New woman of the 1980s when woman began to work alongside men in almost every field to do it yourself of the 20th century with soaring costs and economic downturn. Magazines reflect revolutions in society and influenced the opinion of women across nations. Given the increase in trade to Asia and the spread of the beauty industry across nations, there is limited study available on how people are depicted internationally in the fashion magazines. Previous research has established that womans magazines can act as agents of publicizing gender stereotypes and beauty ideals like size zero and institutionalizing conventions like photographic poses. (Rudman and Verdi, 1993; Griffin, Viswanath, Schwartz, 1994). Yet little research has been done on the differences in representation of women internationally and locally. POWER OF IMAGES One must establish what people are looking at before one can hope to understand why under the conditions peculiar to them, they see what they see Rudolf Arnhein (Arnhein 1977:4) An image is that stimulus or representation that compels us to cognition, interpretation and personal preference. If we understand that the market is image based than we also begin to understand the importance of vision in understanding management in the information society. Images are where visual communication starts. Jonathan E. Schroeder confirms in his study of media that visual consumption is critically important for understanding contemporary consumers. Today marketing professionals are sensitive towards global customers and realise that they are enthusiastic consumers of images. Brand image, corporate image and self image are significant economic and consumer values and that global market culture is largely the construction of symbolic environments. (S. E. Jonathan, 2002) This is of great importance especially in the 21st century as the importance of marketing management and consumer research in this century may shift from problem solving to problem recognition from productio n of goods to the production of images (S. E. Jonathan, 2002) Through time marketers have learnt that markets are global which should translate into local approach. But when companies globalise they become more production driven wanting to sell more thus having common promotional strategies across cultures, sticking to one single image, hardly realising that there may be global products, but there are no global people. There may be global brands but there are no common global motivators to buy those brands. (M. De Mooij, 2009). Many brands have with the help of technology and communication tried to globalise nations. But technology has not brought a global village in which consumers all behave the same. GLOBAL MEDIA Globalisation is best defined as the crystallization of the entire world as a single place (Robertson, Ronald. 1990. Mapping the Global Condition: Globalization as the Central Concept. Theory, Culture and Society 7) Due to the success of global brands writers have predicted an unavoidable colonization of world culture by internationalised brands that would most definitely lead to demise of local cultures. However there is also evidence that suggests social relationships and values in local culture are resistant to the negative effects of globalization. On one hand globalisation is expected to destroy local cultures and bring about homogeneity while on the other hand it is also the reason for the revival of local cultural identities from various parts of the world. Today the expansion of western cultures values and ideas has reached the far corners of the world, right to Asian countries like India and China which have been dominant till the 21st century. Now that these countries have become important players in the world market, counter expansion of values and culture can also be seen. Over the past few decades there has been a rapid expansion of global brands in the media sector more than ever in the area of womans fashion magazines. Local editions of Elle, Harpers Baazar and Vogue are now being published in Asia. The internationalization of a magazine is not a new phenomenon although until quite recently the most popular womans magazines have been published locally. Harpers Bazaar, a U.S magazine launched itself in U.K. in 1929 (Anna Gough-Yates, 1993), Elle a European magazine began publishing its first edition in Japan in 1960s while Vogue a U.S magazine entered the Indian market in the 21st century. However the establishment of an integrated global media market only began in earnest in the late 1980s and did not reach its full potential until the 1990s. (Herman and Mc Chesney ,1997, p10) The latest NRS (National Readership Survey) figures suggest that the total readership market in U.K. for the months of July and December 2008 has risen by 10% since last year, while the total market for womens lifestyle and fashion magazines has grown by 7 %. (IPC Advertising) A similar trend was observed in USA where magazine subscription reached a ten year high in 2008 and with the total number of magazines published reaching 20,590 the total percentage of subscriptions also increased by 1.4% (MPA Magazine Publishers of America, ABC) Comparatively in Asia according to a PricewaterhouseCoopers the Asia/Pacific magazine market excluding Japan is projected to grow by 7.2% annually, reaching $20.7 billion by 2010, Advertising is also expected to rise by 5% annually to $8.1 billion in 2010. This means theres plenty of potential for countries in South Asia, where advertising spending is just about 0.34% of GDP. Until now foreign brands were allowed only 26% ownership when venturing into Asian countries. But in 2005 most of the Asian countries levelled the field for non news publications allowing 100% foreign direct investment. (D. Ruth, 2007, Forbes) In an age looking towards the internet for all information and goods there is a risk that print media and magazine subscriptions may fall contrary to predictions. A recent research conducted by PPA marketing suggests that the internet does not have any harmful effect on peoples desire to read offline, in fact in some cases reading websites encourages them to read magazines. Out of 1500 adults between the age of 18- 34 surveyed online revealed that peoples expectations and goals from each medium depends on the subject matter and for the subject of beauty and fashion print magazines are an obvious choice. Also the idea of owning a piece of fashion history through the beautifully photographed and styled images in fashion magazines makes print media a lucrative choice. With fashion going cross cultures, print media being the apparent choice of the masses to keep them in trend and the governments giving publication houses the clear there is nothing stopping international fashion magazines going local. Like all the other global media, magazines use many different strategies to cross the borders. The main reasons for crossing borders are saturation of home markets and to generate revenue by providing international consumer brands with advertising vehicles that reach into the expanding foreign markets'(Dr. Katherine Frith, 2006,pg4-5). For example Condà © Nast which has a portfolio of 127 magazines in 23 countries had to close down Mademoiselle in November 2001 due to competition, flagging sales and saturation of magazine houses. Markets with rising economic rates like Asia and Middle East, as a result have become a target for westerns producers of beauty and fashion magazines. FASHION MAGAZINES AND THEIR IMPACT Many women across cultures are influenced by general trends in fashion and follow although at a distance the fashion industry. The relationship between consumers and trends is complex but it is mediated by fashion magazines. The difference between international fashion magazines and their local versions is that the international issues tend to carry a predominance of images for multinational products. (Shaw, 1999). Such magazines are growing in popularity in Asia and this popularity has bought about a change in perspective regarding the depiction of woman and products in local magazines. Griffin, Viswanath, and Schwartz(1994) found in a study comparing images in weekly U.S. news magazines (Time and Life) to weekly Indian magazines (India Today and Illustrated weekly of India), that many of the western advertising principles and poses for women were being conveyed across nations. They confirmed that female models in India were taking on poses that related closely to gender portrayals of the advanced western nations. A recent analysis of magazines international and local in China by Frith, Cheng and Shaw (2004) suggests that Caucasian models are more frequently shown in seductive dresses than Asian models. Feminist critiques like Kates, Shaw and Garlock (1999) would argue that western magazines are cultural institutions that represent women in a problematic and often unacceptable way although attractive female bodies and sexual content have for long been used in the west to draw consumers to a product and generate interest. Comparing this to the representation of woman across cultures with reference to the few studies conducted on the topic; Griffin, Viswanath and Schwartz (1994) concluded that the use of Sexual pursuit as a theme was used three times more often in American magazines than magazines in India. In conservative Asian countries like Malaysia and Indonesia only Caucasian women were used in Lingerie advertisements (Frith and Mueller, 2003). Any magazine wanting to be resonant with its target audience needs to represent the social norms and cultural values of the given society. International magazines like Vogue and Elle although have publishing houses in Asian countries most often train their employees in the west. The result being that the forms of representation and especially that of woman can take on a globalized look. As Kyung-Ja Lee,(2000, pg 86) has rightly said for thirty years, media have been taken to task for reproducing and reinforcing stereotyped images of woman. Yet unfair representation of woman in media still prevails worldwide. Sex stereotyping has been so deeply ingrained, even glorified, that the woman themselves have become desensitised to their own inferior portrayal. The prospects appear even gloomier as the globalisation of media progresses Previous researchers have noted that the images of models used in magazines have been extensively retouched to represent the ideal of beauty that is unattainable for all but a very few people.(Greer,1999). By showing models that are uniformly thin, flawless and perfectly proportioned the media may contribute towards low self esteem and unhappiness among woman and give rise to problems like eating disorders.( Gauntlett, 2002) Media is also considered a large contributor to the global increase in plastic surgery to change physical appearance among young girls (Lee, 2007). With most models used in international magazines being white the publications are rarefying the ethnic beauty ideals. In fact the obsession with whitening products may be a result of this overuse of White models in Asian publications. Finally as global media takes readers away from local publications and changing Asian beauty ideals it is important to study the impact of international beauty ideal on local consumers. The Asian society has predominantly been a conservative society yet with the onset of westernisation this society is changing and adapting itself. But as Marieke de Mooij states, product usage or acceptance does not change overnight, as peoples behaviour is stable . A new idea or concept is only accepted when it is consistent to a change in society and does not imply a fundamental change in culture. Essay 2: THE VOGUE IMPACT This essay will discuss Vogue magazines cover page and its relationship with its brand identity. Can the brand successfully globalised by altering its cover page image, based on cultural and social variants in each of its markets? Would standardisation of the brands cover page images and visual identity help to avoid criticism on its entry into a new market? VOGUE BEGINING Started in 1982 Vogue magazine is predominantly an American cultural phenomenon. It began as a social weekly periodical and nurtured into a professional and confident monthly publication under the leadership of Condà © Nast which took over vogue in 1909. Primarily as a lifestyle magazine catering to both men and woman Vogue has come a long way to be at the pinnacle as the fashion magazine for woman in vogue (David, A., 2006). In an age where French fashion was considered the ultimate Vogue managed to put American Couture on the map. Under the Condà © Nast umbrella the magazine not only managed to become a brand name in its own country but also exported fashion ideas to the world. Today Condà © Nast which has a portfolio of 127 magazines in 23 countries believes Vogue to be its cash cow. At present there are a million fashion and beauty magazines such as In Style, Elle and Cosmopolitan circulated around the globe, but in times of crises citizens all over turn to Vogue to confirm the latest fashion news. With readership and subscription levels of about 220,000 a month for the British Vogues, 133,000 a month for the French Vogue and American Vogue, at 1.2 million a month Vogue is the leading magazine in the business of fashion. (IPC Advertising reports) The once small publication eventually became an international phenomenon with issues being published in more than 12 countries. YEAR OF LAUNCH COUNTRY /EDITION 1916 British Vogue 1918 Spanish Vogue 1920 French Vogue 1924-1926 Argentinean Vogue 1928 German Vogue 1964 Italian Vogue 1975 Brazilian Vogue 1994 Singapore Vogue 1996 Korean Vogue 1996 Taiwanese Vogue 1999 Japanese Vogue 1999 Latin American Vogue 2000 Greek Vogue 2005 Chinese Vogue 2007 Indian Vogue Since its birth the magazine has strived to serve the society by portraying an example of proper etiquette, beauty, composure and fashion. The magazine not only plays a role in setting latest trends but also records the changes in cultural thinking, actions and clothing through its images. Looking at Vogue through the ages it can be clearly seen that it is also a documentation of the changing roles of woman, and the influences of cultural ideas and politics over time. The power the Vogue magazine has over generations of women has inspired many new magazines like Cosmopolitan and Glamour; all interested in its market share. In spite of this great quantity of magazines circulating around the globe, considering circulation figures and media impact no other publication has managed to accomplish the lasting power and success of Vogue. (David, R., 2007) VOGUE IMAGE Self definition has always been crucial to vogue. (David, A., 2006). Throughout its first 30 years vogue editors and illustrators made use of the French meaning of vogue, defined in the first dictionary of the Acadà ©mie Franà §aise (1694) as the impulsion or movement of a galley or other ship by the force of rowing. It was only in the 18th century that vogue and fashion were listed as synonyms (Fà ©raud 1787–8). Since its first issue Vogue magazine has been personified as a youthful young woman. The magazines first cover presented itself in the disguise of a debutante, a young socialite. When Condà © Nast bought the magazine in 1909 he brought it into line with other successful publishing ventures and in just over a decade, circulation went from 14,000 to 150,000 while advertising revenue soared from $76,111 to two million dollars (Robinson 1923: 170). He modernised the magazine not just the content but also the cover. He replaced the black and white drawings of the front cover with commissioned, lavish, stylised and signed illustrations. This change helped to attract attention to the magazine and increase circulations. As an advertising man, he understood the value of having a visual brand or logo and Nast revived the original Vogue trademark, a distinguished little sketch which immediately became known as the Vogue girl (David, A., 2006). This first Vogue girl was just an illustration cla d in a fancy dress with the than fashionable leg-o-mutton sleeves. Her unnatural ivory white skin, snow white wig, tiny waist and voluptuous bosom, was directed at the fantasies of the magazines readers (David, A., 2006).The Vogue girl represented the heritage of those Americans who wished to be different from the New World Americans and was constantly seen as wearing historical costumes and heirlooms. Than too the new world American woman aspired to look like her. All this changed in the 1920s when the Vogue girl was changed to an illustration by Georges Lepape. This new image was more streamlined and represented the woman at the heights of fashion in the 1920s. Vogue had gone from importing fashion to exporting it. As times changed so did the magazine cover from illustrations to photographs, making models like Cindy Crawford and celebrities like Madonna a household name. This change in its image was a response to the internationalisation of the magazine. Today the vogue cover girls are the most glamorous, exotic, unusual and popular persons of the moment. The trend being more towards actresses than models dressed in the heights of fashion, styled by the best stylist and clicked by A-list photographers they are every girls aspiration and every boys fantasy. Like its cover girls the magazines is considered to be glamorous, glossy and trendy. (Alexandra Shulman, Vogue U.K. editor). Despite of having these factors common among them, the vogue covers are dissimilar in many aspects depending upon its country of publication. CULTURE AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR Anglo –Saxon psychological research states that the concept of self and personality are the basis of Western consumer behaviour. The words identity or personality have no fixed meaning in the Asian culture. A global brand needs to consider the cultural differences to truly succeed in the world field. A number of research experts and cultural studies suggest that a brand should think global, act local. This is based upon the theory that the way people think and perceive any brand or image is guided by the framework of their own culture (Mooij, M, 2009). The observation of Japanese individuality as a sign of westernisation of the country is a misconception of many global brands. For more than a decade international magazines have been accused of standardising a beauty ideal across the globe with disregard to the individual cultural and beauty ideals of the host country. For a short duration the values and attributes of a foreign or global personality might have a strong attraction, but ultimately people return to their own local values and culture. For a Brazilian woman the emphasis is on her bottom, um corpo de violà £o which literally means a guitar shaped body is most desirable. No matter how many international magazines showcase buxom beauties, the Brazilian woman would ultimately want a bigger bottom as the point of attraction is the sweet swing of the hips. The illustration of a desirable Japanese woman in The memoirs of a Gesha suggest, that the Japanese appreciate soft delicate feminine features, small feet and long hair cut in layers. A slim slender graceful body is more desirable than a curvaceous one. In Islamic countries the body is considered a n obstacle in viewing ones true beauty. Any bodily decorations or changes are considered a veil over the inner beauty and the Hijab is another veil to conceal these changes so that the womans only public identity would be her inner self. For the Greek it has been symmetry in structure and features, based on Platos ideas that, beauty is that which irradiates symmetry rather than symmetry itself. The Nuba tribe in Sudan like dark skin and hairlessness. On studying traditional Indian paintings it can be concluded that the Indian ideals of beauty in a woman is voluptuousness, with the belly and hips being of prominence.( Ei, 2008) The image and identity associated with woman of different geographical locations are deep rooted in their respective cultures. The beauty ideals and a womans self image in any culture can be understood by studying its paintings, sculpture and artistic representations. Today the artistic or idealistic representations of women are magazine covers, images and pho to spreads. These covers are also considered a mode of advertisement for the magazine within that culture. As Steve Taylor has rightly put in his book 100 years of magazine covers it is hard to identify another cultural artefact which embodies an advertisement for itself in such a powerful way. Magazine covers can be breathtaking, beautiful, confrontational, resonant, heartbreaking, stimulating, irritating and uplifting. At their best they come together as a kind of spontaneous street level exhibition, publicly displaying the work of some of our best creative talent, featuring what is most admirable and dismissible about the modern world, communicating the people and events that shape our culture. Apart from a mode of advertisement of todays culture a magazine cover plays a dual function of advertising the magazine brand itself. An impressive cover encourages people to flip through the magazine and buy it. (Alexandra Shulman, British Vogue editor). Getting the magazine cover right is not only ethically important but also financially important to the magazine in order to develop brand loyalty and increased circulations. Thus making it important to study magazine covers as a mode of advertisement and part of the marketing mix, for a magazine publication. MAGAZINE COVERS AS BRAND VISUAL IDENTITY It is a common assumption that an advertisement would be effective if the viewer decodes the advertisement successfully, if there is a significant transfer of attributes. (Mooij, M., 2009). Thus while developing one idea for a global brand or one single motivator for different cultures, one should not assume that the responses would be alike too. An idea being interpreted accurately by the consumers would only happen if the senders and receivers share one culture. If they do not share the same cultural values it may result in misunderstandings and demeaning of brand value within that culture. For example consider the inaugural Vogue covers of India and China. The Indian Vogue cover was styled by the magazines British fashion director while the Chinese vogue was styled by French Vogue editor Carine Roitfeld (China economic net and Fashion week daily dispatch). The covers were not rightly decoded by the consumers and received much criticism. Whereas the covers for the preceding months styled by Anaita Shroff Adajania the fashion director for Vogue India was highly appreciated.(Fashion week daily dispatch) The essence of a brand is that it is a name in the memory of consumers. It is a perceptual map of positive and negative associations, a symbolic language, and a network of associations. (Mooij, M.,2009). Vogue with its launch in many Asian countries received much negative associations with its local issues. The local Asian issues of Vogue are considered small ripples in the big pond of Fashion magazines (Armstrong ,L, 2009) and they could never manage to create the impact that American vogue or Italian Vogue have managed to create world over. Vogue India or Vogue China might be sold worldwide but it is not necessary that consumers in all countries consider them global brands. One theory suggests that a global brand is a brand that is strongly associated with its country of origin (Mooij, M., 2009) and for Vogue its been America. This can be considered positive if the country of origin has a stable global identity. With American values becoming ambiguous and Vogue bifurcating into mul tiple countries over time its core identity may be threatened. The idea of incorporating local aesthetics with their global image might dilute the brands global image. STANDARDISATION A multinational companys personality and identity are the biggest factors influencing consumer (Eales, 1990 as cited in Melewar,T.C, Saunders, J., 1998). Unrestricted global trade, a competitive marketplace and the fast technological developments have created a situation where consumers dont just buy the product they also buy the company that produces it. The brands character, its identity, its image and the confidence it inspires in them help in making the choice between two almost similar product offerings in the market. At the centre of any business and its projected image is its corporate visual identity system. The elements of this system are: name, symbol, and/or logo, typography, colour and slogan (Dowling, 1994). These elements help to sell the company to consumers and its stakeholders. Corporate identity programs have risen due to globalisation (Ind, 1992). The changing business tactics, geographical locations, variations in cultures and changing markets have all encouraged companies to change their corporate identity. As companies begin to operate on an international basis, the image that they acquired as national producers often becomes inappropriate (Mills, 1988 as cited in Melewar,T.C, Saunders, J., 1998). Some international companies adopt a unified brand image in spite of government and consumer displeasure. The degree of de-standardisation of any company depends upon the strength of the host countries culture, government policies and target market. (Mooij, M., 2009). The decision to standardise a brand image also depends upon the competitive edge derived in either keeping activities central or decentralizing them. However a brand like Vogue that has a truly global orientation needs to express consistent brand values wherever it chooses to compete. Thus making its worldwide image more recognisable for its homogeneity than not. A major component of a corporate identity is the corporate structure. (Strong, 1987) According to Ind (1992) there exist two corporate identities, one that is the organisational structure and the other that is the visual structure. The Visual structure is concerned with the branding of the product, and how it appears to the consumers. (Gray Smeltzer, 1985 as cited in Melewar, T.C., Saunders, J., 1998). The basic concern with the visual structure is the degree of centralisation and decentralisation. Thus the basic problem faced by Vogue is whether to sell an identical product image to all its consumers or to make modifications as per the local differences. A global brand can be a mass brand satisfying a common product need in all the countries or it can be a brand catering to a common niche in all the countries. Vogue magazine has two options, being a global brand it could standardize the brand and the brand image across the globe so that the Indian woman reading the Indian Vogue would feel equal to the French or American woman reading their respective Vogues. The other option it has is to go local, differentiate between its offerings and treat each market as an individual and not a global product while standardising its visual image, giving the impression of a common brand. Researchers argue that standardisation of a brand helps the company to achieve a uniform image internationally which in turn increases sales.(Buzzell, 1968, Hovells Walters, 1972 as cited in Melewar, T.C., Saunders, J., 1998) . Others were of the opinion that standardisation makes consumers familiar with the product, its services, business diversities and competitive distinction thus helping to establish a uniform corporate image.(Peebles et al ,1977 as cited in Melewar, T.C., Saunders, J., 1998). Cosmopolitan for example is known around the globe to address personal and sex related issues as it does not change its editorials and articles depending on culture. The band logo/ font type, position or style does not differ according to geographical locations. The brand has achieved a sense of standardisation by not having a distinct country name printed on its cover unlike Vogue. The research on global corporate visual identity systems by T.C. Melewar and John Saunders (1998) proved that firms with highly standardised corporate visual identity systems (CVIS) saw themselves reaping more reward from their CVIS than did those with low CVIS standardisation. All custom